SUBJECT: BOTANY/ PLANT BIOLOGY AND PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY SYLLABUS
UNIT-1 Biodiversity
Algae: General characters and Classification of algae by F.E.Fritsch (1935-45) & Silva (1982). Salient features of major classes: Cyanophyceae, Chlorophyceae, Xanthophyceae, Bacillariophyceae, Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae. Range of thallus organization, reproduction and life cycles. Economic importance of algae.
Bryophytes: General characters and Classification of Bryophytes by Watson (1971). Distribution, Structural variations and evolution of gametophytes and sporophytes in Hepaticopsida, Anthoceropsida and Bryopsida. Economic importance of bryophytes.
Pteridophytes: General characteristics and classification of Pteridophytes (Reimer, 1954). Stellar evolution. Heterospory and seed habit, Telome theory, Economic importance of Pteridophytes. General characters and life cycle of Psilopsida, Lycopsida, Sphenopsida, Pteropsida.
Gymnosperms: General characters of Gymnosperms. classification (K.R.Sporne, 1965). Economic importance of Gymnosperms. General characters of major groups: Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta, Gnetophyta, Coniferophyta. Fossil gymnosperms.
UNIT-2 Microbiology
Bacteria: General characters of bacteria – Outline classification–Bacterial growth – Reproduction–Genetic recombination- Transformation, Transduction and Conjugation. Isolation and cultivation of bacteria.
Viruses: General characters, Classification, Structure, Multiplication. Bacteriophages–replication of DNA and RNA phages - Lytic and Lysogenic cycle. Viroids and prions. Mycoplasma.
Fungi: General Characters, occurrence and distribution. Mode of nutrition in fungi. Classification of Fungi by Alexopoulos and Mims (1979). General characters of major classes: Myxomycetes, Oomycetes, Zygomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and Deuteromycetes. Heterothallism, sexuality, Para sexuality, sex hormones in fungi.
Lichens: Introduction and Classification (Hale, 1969). Occurrence and inter-relationship of phycobionts and mycobionts, structure and reproduction in Ascolichens, Basidiolichens and Deuterolichens. Economic importance.
Plant Pathology: History and significance of plant pathology. Classification of plant diseases, symptomology.
Principles of plant infection – Host parasite interrelationship and interaction. Causal agents of plant diseases–biotic causes (fungi, bacteria, virus, mycoplasma, nematodes, parasitic algae, angiospermic parasites–Abiotic causes (Physiological, deficiency of nutrients & minerals and pollution). Mechanism of penetration- Disease development of pathogen (colonization) and dissemination of pathogens. Role of enzymes and toxins in disease development.
Defense mechanism of host–structural and biochemical defenses. Important diseases of crop plants in India – Principles of disease management–Cultural practices, physical, chemical and biological methods, disease controlled by immunization. Biocontrol–Plant quarantine and legislation. Integrated Pest Management system.
Food Microbiology: Beneficial role of microbes –Fermented food. Spoilage of fruits, vegetables, meats, poultry, eggs, bakery products, dairy products and canned foods. Microbial toxins. Food Preservation – Soil Microbiology: Importance of Microbial flora of soil and factors affecting the microbial community in soil. Microorganisms in organic matter decomposition. Environmental Microbiology: Microbiology of water and air. Water borne diseases–Air borne diseases–Microbial degradation of chemical pesticides and hydrocarbon.
UNIT-3 Morphology, Taxonomy, Ethno botany and Economic botany.
Morphology: Morphological variation of root, stem, leaf, inflorescence, flowers and fruits.
Taxonomy: Principles of classification – Artificial – Linnaeus, Natural – Bentham and Hooker, Phylogenetic system–Hutchinson, Modern – Takhtajan. Botanical gardens and Herbarium, Botanical survey of India.
Modern trends in taxonomy, chemotaxonomy, numerical taxonomy, biosystemics. ICBN uninominal systems - genesis binomial nomenclature, importance and principle. Important articles, typification, principles of priority, effective and valid publication, author citation, recommendations and amendments of code. Glossories and dictionaries, Taxonomic literature (Index Kewensis). systematic analysis of plants of various families Polypetalae – Annonaceae, Nympheaceae, Sterculiaceae, Portulaceae, Rhamnaceae, Vitaceae, Sapindaceae, Combretaceae, Turneraceae. Gamopetalae – Sapotaceae, Oleaceae, Boraginaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Bignoniaceae, Convolvulaceae, Acanthaceae, Verbenaceae. Monochlamydeae – Nyctaginaceae, Aristolochiaceae, Casuarinaceae. Monocots – Orchidaceae, Amarylidaceae, Lilliaceae, Poaceae.
ETHNOBOTANY:
History of ethnobotany: Distribution of tribes in India. Basic knowledge of following tribes of Tamil Nadu: Irulas, Kanis, Paliyars Badagas, Kurumbres, Thodas and Malayalis. Plants used by tribals of Tamil Nadu. Role of plants in naturopathy-Indian Systems of Medicine (Ayurveda, Siddha, Allopathy, Homeopathy, Unani, Tibetan, Yoga and Naturopathy). Disease diagnosis, treatment, and cure using natural Bioprospecting of drug molecules derived from Indian traditional plants; Methods for bio prospecting of natural resources; From folk Taxonomy to species confirmation-evidences based on phylogenetic and metabolomics analyses; Ethnobotanical databases and Traditional knowledge Digital Library (TKDL).
Economic Botany: Source and processing of Economically useful products of the following: 1) Cereals -Rice, maize 2) Pulses–Black gram, soybean 3) Sugarcane 4) Coffee 5) Spices – turmeric, cloves 6) Medicinal plants–Ocimum, Aloe 7) Fibre–Cotton, Jute 8) Essential oils – Eucalyptus.
UNIT-4 PLANT ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY OF ANGIOSPERMS
Cellwall, Plasmodesmata–types of pits Meristems: Simple and complex tissues. Vascular Cambium: Primary and secondary xylem and Phloem: Periderm. Normal secondary thickening in Dicots; Anomalous secondary growth in Dicots (Amaranthaceae, Aristolochiaceae, Bignoniaceae, Nyctaginaceae) and arborescent Monocots. Primary thickening in palms; Ontogeny of leaf, Structure and types of Stomata; Leaf abscission; Major nodal types; Kranz anatomy and its significance. Micro techniques and histochemistry.
EMBRYOLOGY
Microsporangium and Male gametophyte: Structure and development of Anther; Male gametophyte; Palynology: Morphology and ultrastructure of pollen wall, pollen sterility and pollen physiology.
Megasporangium and Female Gametophyte: Structure and development of Megasporangium; Types of ovules, Endothelium, obturator and nucellus. Megasporogenesis: Female gametophyte: Structure, types, haustorial behavior and Nutrition of embryo sacs. Fertilization: Endosperm: Embryogeny: Development of monocot (Grass) and dicot (Crucifer) embryos. Polyembryony, Apomixis. Seed and Fruit development and role of growth substances. Parthenocarpy.
UNIT–5 Plant Physiology, Biochemistry and secondary metabolites
Plant Physiology: Water Relations:–– Transpiration– mechanism of stomatal opening and closing – mineral nutrition – Photosynthesis: light and dark reaction, C3 and C4 types, phloem loading and unloading-photorespirationrespiration–Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, ETP–Cyanide resistant respiration; Nitrogen metabolism: Nitrogen fixation (Biological–symbiotic and non-symbiotic), Physiology and Biochemistry of nitrogen fixation – enzymes and pathways.
Growth and development –- Plant growth regulators–Photoperiodism –– Vernalization–biological rhythms and movements. Seed dormancy Plant senescence and its significance. Fruit ripening: Plant response to environmental stress: Biotic and Abiotic stress.
Biochemistry: Structure of atoms, molecules, and chemical bonds. Composition, structure and function of biomolecules–carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids and vitamins. Principles of biophysical chemistry -pH, buffer, reaction kinetics, thermodynamics, colligative properties. Bioenergetics, oxidative phosphorylation, coupled reaction, group transfer, biological energy transducers. Principles of catalysis, enzymes and enzyme kinetics, enzyme regulation, mechanism of enzyme catalysis, isozymes.
Conformation of proteins (Ramachandran plot, secondary structure, domains, motif, and folds).Conformation of nucleic acids (helix (A, B, Z), t-RNA, micro-RNA).Stability of proteins and nucleic acids. Metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, amino acids nucleotides and vitamins.
Secondary metabolites: Types and their roles, alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, terpenes, phenols, tannins, coumarins, glycosides, nitrogenous compounds
Unit-6 Instrumentation and Biostatistics
Microscopy - simple, compound, binocular, phase contrast, interference, polarizing, dark field, ultraviolet, fluorescent microscopes. Microtome and types. Electron microscope – SEM, TEM. Micrometry, haemo cytometer.
Buffer (phosphate, acetate buffer), pH, Principles and applications of–pH meter – electrode, digital, oxygen electrode, cell fractionation, homogenizers, sonication. Centrifugation – principles and applications. Types of centrifuges. Types of centrifugation methods (differential, density gradient). Chromatography–principle, paper, thin layer, column chromatography, HPLC, Ion exchange chromatography, gas chromatography. Electrophoresis – polyacrylamide-PAGE, SDS-agarose. Spectrophotometer, fluorimeter, luminometer – principle, working mechanism and its application.
Detection of molecules using ELISA, RIA, western blot, immune precipitation, flow cytometry and immune fluorescence microscopy, detection of molecules in living cells, in situ localization by techniques such as FISH and GISH.
Biostatistics: Statistical Methods: Measures of central tendency and dispersal; probability distributions (Binomial, Poisson and normal); Sampling distribution; Difference between parametric and non- parametric statistics; Confidence Interval; Errors; Levels of significance; Regression and Correlation; t-test; Analysis of variance; X2 test; Basic introduction to Multivariate statistics, etc.
UNIT-7 Cellular Organization
Membrane structure and function: structure of model membrane, lipid bilayer, and membrane protein diffusion, osmosis, ion channels, active transport; membrane pumps; mechanism of sorting and regulation of intracellular transport; electrical properties of membranes. Structural organization and function of intracellular organelles - Cell Wall, Nucleus, Mitochondria, Golgi bodies, Lysosomes, Endoplasmic reticulum, Peroxisomes, Plastids, Vacuoles, Chloroplast, structure & function of the cytoskeleton and its role in motility.
Organization of genes and chromosomes: Operon, unique and repetitive DNA, interrupted genes, gene families, the structure of chromatin and chromosomes, heterochromatin, euchromatin, transposons.
Cell division and the cell cycle: mitosis and meiosis, their regulation, steps in cell cycle, regulation of cell cycle.
Microbial Physiology: Growth yield and characteristics, strategies of cell division.
UNIT-8 Genetics Plant Breeding and Horticulture
Genetics: Mendelian principles: Dominance, segregation, independent assortment. Extensions of Mendelian principles: Codominance, incomplete dominance, gene interactions, pleiotropy, genomic imprinting, penetrance and expressivity, phenocopy, linkage and crossing over, sex linkage, sex- limited and sex influenced characters. Sex determination in plants. Concept of gene: Allele, multiple alleles, pseudo allele, complementation tests.
Gene mapping methods: Linkage maps, tetrad analysis, mapping with molecular markers, mapping by using somatic cell hybrids, development of mapping population in plants. Polygenic inheritance, heritability and its measurements, QTL mapping. karyotypes, genetic disorders. Extra chromosomal inheritance. Population genetics. Gene pool – Hardy Wienberg equilibrium.
Structural and numerical alterations of chromosomes: Deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation, ploidy and their genetic implications.
Mutation: Types, causes and detection, mutant types – lethal, conditional, biochemical, loss of function, a gain of function, germinal verses somatic mutants, insertional mutagenesis.
Plant Breeding
Objectives of plant breeding, Genetic basis of breeding self and cross – pollinated crops. pure line selection and mass selection, clonal selection methods. Hybridization, Genetics and physiological basis of heterosis. Polyploidy, mutation breeding. Seed certification, National Biodiversity Policy.
Horticulture: Organic manures and fertilizers. Composition of fertilizer, NPK content of various fertilizers. Common organic manures. Vermicompost preparation. Panchakaviyam. Common garden tools. Methods of plant propagation by seeds. Vegetative propagation. Use of growth regulators for rooting. Gardening–types of garden. Rockery and artificial ponds. Ornamental garden – Bonsai – Glass house – Green house – Mist chamber. Floriculture, arboriculture, silviculture, olericulture.
UNIT-9 Molecular Biology, rDNA technology, Biotechnology and Bioinformatics
DNA–genetic material – Experiments that proved that DNA is the genetic material, Chargaff’s rule. Genetic code. DNA replication: enzymes involved, replication origin and replication fork, the fidelity of replication, extra chromosomal replicons Central Dogma - RNA synthesis and processing: Transcription factors and machinery, formation of initiation complex, transcription activator and repressor, RNA polymerases, capping, elongation, and termination, RNA processing, RNA editing, splicing, and polyadenylation, structure and function of different types of RNA, RNA transport.
Protein synthesis and processing: Ribosome, formation of initiation complex, initiation factors and their regulation, elongation and elongation factors, termination, genetic code, amino acylation of tRNA, tRNA-identity, amino acyl tRNA synthetase and translational proof- reading, translational inhibitors, Post-translational modification of proteins.
DNA damage and repair mechanisms.
Gene regulation - Operon - types, structure and functioning of lac, trp operon, Control of gene expression at transcription and translation level: Regulating the expression of phages, viruses, prokaryotic and eukaryotic genes, the role of chromatin in gene expression and gene silencing. Cell communication and cell signaling.
rDNA technology: Recombinant DNA methods: Isolation and purification of RNA, DNA (genomic and plasmid) and proteins, different separation methods. Analysis of RNA, DNA and proteins by one and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, Isoelectric focusing gels. Molecular cloning of DNA or RNA fragments in bacterial and eukaryotic systems Expression of recombinant proteins using bacterial, animal and plant vectors. Isolation of specific nucleic acid sequences Generation of genomic and cDNA libraries in a plasmid, phage, cosmid, BAC and YAC vectors.
Biotechnology:
Plant tissue culture -– Laboratory organization-Plant culture media–Micropropagation: callus culture – Organogenesis and somatic embryogenesis–-Somaclonal & gametoclonal variation – synthetic seed technology-Cell and protoplast cultures and haploid production: Single cell and cell suspension culture-Anther culture and pollen culture.
Immobilization: Bioreactors: Immobilized cells; Bioseparations: Downstream Processing. Important products through fermentation, bakers yeast, biosurfactants, biopesticides, biopolymers. cryopreservation
Transgenic plants–Pest resistance, herbicidal resistance, Disease resistant, abiotic and biotic stress tolerant, in improving crop yield, Virus and Bacteria based transient gene expression systems. Virus induced gene complementation, Cytoplasmic male sterility and fertility restoration, terminator Seed technology, antisense technology for delayed fruit ripening, Plants as factories for useful products and pharmaceuticals. GMO-Bt plants, Flavr savr tomato, Golden rice, edible vaccine, bio fortification – ethical issues.
Intellectual Property Rights: Intellectual Property Rights–Introduction, Kinds of Intellectual Property Rights - Patents, Trademarks, Copyrights, Trade Secrets. Need for intellectual property right, Advantages and Disadvantages of IPR. International Regime Relating to IPR – TRIPS, WIPO, WTO, GATTS. IPR in India genesis and development.
Geographical Indication – introduction, types. Patent filing procedure for ordinary application.
Bioinformatics: Genomics, Proteomics, Metabolomics, Pharmacogenomics. Database –sequence and structural database(NCBI), DNA (Genbank, EMBL, DDBJ) protein database (Swissport, prosite). Protein prediction, molecular visualization of proteins (RASMOL), phylogenetic analysis, drug targeting, drug discovery, nanotechnology, Rice genome project.
UNIT-10 Environmental Biology and Evolution
Ecosystem structure and function; energy flow and mineral cycling (C, N, P): terrestrial and aquatic.
Habitat and Niche: Concept of habitat and niche; niche width and overlap; fundamental and realized niche; resource partitioning; character displacement. The Environment: Physical environment; biotic environment; biotic and abiotic interactions. Species Interactions-Ecological Succession-Population Ecology: Characteristics of a population; population growth curves; population regulation; life history strategies (r and K selection); the concept of metapopulation – demes and dispersal, intergenic extinctions, age-structured populations. Food chain and food web, energy flow, laws of thermodynamics. Productivity – primary and secondary productivity – GPP & BPP. Community Ecology: Nature of communities; community structure and attributes; levels of species diversity and its measurement; edges and ecotones.
Energy resources; renewable and non-renewable. Environment Deterioration: Pollution – types and control-Climate change-Green house effect and global warming, ozone depletion and acid rain. Waste management–Solid and e-waste, recycling of wastes. Bioremediation- types. Eco-restoration/remediation ecological foot prints-carbon foot print-ecolabeling-environmental auditing.
Phytogeography: Biogeography: Major terrestrial biomes; theory of island biogeography; biogeographical zones of India. Phytogeographical Zones-Vegetation types of India and Tamil Nadu, Distribution: Continuous, Discontinuous and Endemism. Theories of discontinuous distribution: Continental drift, Age and area hypothesis. Geographical Information System (GIS) Principles of remote sensing and its applications. Biodiversity And Conservation – Hot spots – Threats to biodiversity–endangered and endemic plant species of India, Red list categories of IUCN, conservation–in situ and ex situ methods.
EVOLUTION
Origin of universe – big bang theory- origin of life – origin of species–Origin of basic biological molecules; Abiotic synthesis of organic monomers and polymers; Concept of Oparin and Haldane; Experiment of Miller (1953); The first cell; Evolution of prokaryotes; Origin of eukaryotic cells; Evolution of unicellular eukaryotes; Anaerobic metabolism, photosynthesis and aerobic metabolism. The emergence of evolutionary thoughts: Lamarck; Darwin–concepts of variation, adaptation, struggle, fitness and natural selection; Mendelism; Spontaneity of mutations; The evolutionary synthesis. Speciation, Allopatricity and Sympatricity, Convengent evolution, Co-evolution, the evolutionary time scale.
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